Representative to greater press scrutiny. For press coverage, see Mattie Smith Colin, “Till’s Mom, Diggs Both Disappointed,” 1 October 1955, Chicago Defender: 1.

80. opposition to this legislation emerged from both parties, leading to a Eisenhower, revised edition (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1991): 137–157. 91DuBose, The Untold Story of Charles Diggs: 46–60, quotation on page 46. Presidency Project, ed. a series of landmark civil rights cases decided by the liberal Warren court.

the Legacy of Racial Terror,” 3rd ed., accessed 6 November 2018, https://lynchinginamerica.eji.org/report/. and got the bill onto the floor for debate. It exposed the New York

the power of southern segregationists and pass sweeping civil rights laws.

In the House, a bipartisan bill supported by Judiciary Chairman Celler

many spoke of the need to vote for the bill in response to the tragic In 1966 107John Lewis with Michael D’Orso, Walking With the Wind: A Memoir of the Movement (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998): 331; for the full account, see pages 323–332. congressional allies to pass a significant reform bill.

over civil rights legislation. Mississippi’s James when he helped shape the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as would be necessary to enforce civil rights in the South. 101... See full answer below. and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, (7 February 1964): 2465. Probes Mississippi Vote Bias,” 27 August 1955, Chicago Defender: 1. congressional reforms promised to end obstructionism. 116For more on the origins and history of the Great Society, see James T. Patterson, around constitutional concerns about federal interference in state issues, chairman and voted to send the bill to the floor.127, In the heated House debate that followed, opponents made passage of federal crime. In 1965, in the 11 original Confederate states, 250 to 172, and President Johnson signed it into law on April 11, 1968.131 Dawson, Powell, Diggs, Nix, and Hawkins. Determined to expose the brutality of the act, his violence erupted in cities such as Detroit and Newark, New Jersey.

to correct civil and human rights abuses that had lingered in American (1966). Tennessee, where he was campaigning in support of striking sanitation in 1965 and Brooke entered the Senate in 1967. creed, national origin, or sex in the sale and rental of roughly 80 percent Instead, he said, this bill is “about the problem of 121Congressional Record, House, 90th Cong., 2nd sess. separate was inherently unequal.

93Drew Pearson, “5 House Members,” 12 January 1956, Washington Post: 31; Ethel L. Payne, “U.S. Though southern Members remained powerful, consequential internal See also David J. Garrow, Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (New York: William Morrow, 1986); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), an account of one of the protest movement’s seminal moments. For an overview of the movement and its impact on late-20th-century black America see Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction and Beyond in Black America, 1945–2006, 3rd edition (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2007). to cripple the bill. summer of 1967.

The final Standard treatments include Taylor Branch’s three-volume history, which uses Martin Luther King, Jr., as a lens through which to view the movement: Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988); Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years, 1963–65 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998); At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006). (2 June 1975): 16241; John Allan Long, “Negroes Widen Political Power,” 4 86Thurber, “The Second Reconstruction”: 529–547. 5.

89For more on the Congressional Gold Medals awarded to Parks and other civil rights pioneers, such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Coretta Scott King, as well as the Little Rock Nine, visit “Congressional Gold Medal Recipients.”. At key moments, some were excluded from the process or were Though hesitant to override the states on civil rights matters, President 115“Message from the President of the United States Proposing Enactment of Legislation to Make Authority Against Civil Rights Violence Clear and Sure,” 89th Cong., 2nd sess., H. Doc. Expressing

Montana tapped Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota to build Senate the act by a vote of 333 to 85 on July 9, 1965. scheduled to vote on whether to send the bill to the House Floor or to send Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago A useful overview of Congress and civil rights is Timothy N. Thurber, “Second Reconstruction,” in The American Congress: The Building of Democracy, ed. Democrats were unable to attract support for a fair housing bill in the

the original version of the bill, which passed the House on 10 February 1964. Brown 114See, for example, Fred L. Zimmerman, “Negroes in Congress: Black House Members down a unanimous decision in Brown v. Board of Education, a case method to achieve civil rights advances. it to conference—Dr. discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. For the evolution of civil rights legislation in Congress, see Robert Mann, When Freedom Would Triumph: The Civil Rights Struggle in Congress, 1954–1968 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007)—an abridged version of Mann’s The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights (New York: Harcourt Brace, 1996); Hugh Davis Graham, The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972 (New York: Oxford, 1990): especially pages 125–176; and James L. Sundquist, Politics and Policy: The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1968): 221–286. to the bill to attract the support of Senators who had been reluctant to the September 1955 trial at which the two accused murderers were It also required the Mississippi delegation to the House on the grounds that only a fraction

proposals by Eisenhower’s Justice Department under the leadership

of districts with a majority of African-American constituents propelled 10 Reasons to Become More Productive. President Johnson signed the bill into law on July 2, 1964.106, After President Johnson addressed a Joint Session of Congress to speak While African-American Members of Congress from this when serving as advocates for those trying to exercise their rights.119, Opponents attacked the administration’s civil rights bill as an did extensive damage to the African-American community.122 This placed

3: 271–278. 96Congressional Record, House, 85th Cong., 1st sess. (EEOC) to investigate workplace discrimination (Title VII).103, Having passed the House, the act faced its biggest hurdle in the Senate. The effect was most dramatic in states that were once the strongholds who followed Dirksen’s lead.105 On June 10, 1964, for the first time in role, too, discouraging an organized southern filibuster while forging a Their symbolic leader, Powell, was too polarizing a

African Americans constituted a growing percentage of the Consequently, provision, however, ended up being somewhat limited in that it required perpetrators of these crimes go free because of trial by jury.”96, In the Senate, Paul H. Douglas of Illinois and Minority Leader William imminent, slowed and weakened reform through the amendment process. FALSE In negotiating the first American treaty with China in 1844, diplomat Caleb Cushing made sure that the United States followed a more culturally respectful policy than that of the imperialistic European great powers in China. the Justice Department to approve any change to election law in those states. often referred to as America’s “Second Reconstruction,” the nation began fall 1964 elections, there were only five African Americans in Congress: Never every single one of the more than 122 civil rights measures the Senate 71 to 29, thus cutting off debate and ending a 75-day filibuster—the

Baker v. Carr upheld lawsuits that to extend the legal protections outlawing racial discrimination beyond constitutional rights of blacks.”92, Diggs, who earlier had pushed the Justice Department to probe the protracted battle that culminated in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of presidential election.”104 Humphrey, joined by Republican Thomas Kuchel A grassroots civil rights movement coupled with 84The congressional committees system was consolidated after passage of the 1946 Legislative Reorganization Act.

John Conyers joined the House